As urbanization pressures on ecosystems are set to increase, trade-offs between ecosystem services are also likely to increase. Management strategies that minimize trade-offs and promote sustainable development to optimize ecosystem multi-functionality are therefore needed. Many coastal cities may however struggle to find the resources and capacity to operationalize ecosystem service agendas. Therefore, the objective of this study is to propose and test the suitability of a multi-functional landscape approach to ecosystem service assessments using the case study of Singapore, with a focus on five ecosystem services: water and air pollution control, global climate, local temperature, and recreational potential services. Our results show clear heterogeneity in the capacity of mangroves to supply different ecosystem services, with a general tendency for greater amounts of supply in larger mangrove patches, and for ecosystem services to aggregate producing hotspots of supply. Overall, 24% of the mangrove landscape supported aggregations of at least one, two, or three ecosystem services, but only <1% of the mangrove landscape supporting overlapping aggregations of all five services. Ecosystem services also covaried to produce trade-offs and synergies, with ecosystem service bundling largely driven by regulating services. Areas of ecosystem service synergy and hotspot overlap represent possible priority areas of future conservation or management and highlight what might be lost if significant degradation were allowed to occur. Further, the large spatial mismatch among ecosystem service hotspots also highlights the difficulty in identifying single areas capable of delivering substantial amounts of multiple ecosystem services. We conclude that this framework provides a basis to look at ecosystem services in combination, as well as individually, and to do so in a spatially explicit manner that can be overlaid with maps of land use or other development planning.
